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Chapter 2 — Politics and Choice Study Chapter Summary This chapter focuses on the challenging
subject of politics and choice to underscore in yet another way the intimate
connection between values, facts, and judgment. Four cases are used to illustrate
the dimensions of choice in politics: (1) Socrates’ choice not to flee Athens
to avoid an unjust punishment; (2) James Madison’s choice of a new political
theory to guide the American Constitution of 1787 and the federal republic it
created; (3) the choice by German citizens (and key leaders) of Adolf Hitler in
1932 and 1933; and (4) President John F. Kennedy’s choice of a blockade to
counter the Soviet Union’s placement of offensive nuclear weapons in Cuba in
the fall of 1962. These case studies invite critical
thinking about four important themes in politics: political obligation, political creativity, responsible exercise of freedom, and power politics
in the nuclear age. The theme of political obligation is illuminated in the case of Socrates, who was
executed in 399 B.C. by Athenian authorities because of his incessant
criticisms of Athenian democracy. Despite being condemned to death, he was
unwilling to abandon his city or his friends. Socrates was willing to die for
his beliefs, and thus, he offers an example of a man of principle and of civic
loyalty. As admirable as we might consider Socrates’ choice, his case raises
some serious questions. For example, do we uncritically accept Socrates’
statement that “whether in battle or in a court of law” we “must do” as our
country orders? Do we accept that “punishment is to be endured in silence”?
Even in battle, is following orders a legitimate excuse for violating
international law or for committing war crimes, genocide, or other crimes
against humanity? Is there no obligation to speak out against unjust
punishment? The challenge for James Madison, the
subject of our second case study, was as follows: How can we reconcile liberty
and authority in a large state? According to conventional wisdom, republican
government was possible only in a small political community--for example, a
city-state such as Athens, Florence, Venice, or Geneva. Moreover, according to
the conventional wisdom, a large state could be governed only by a monarch or a
despot. How, then, were Americans to deal with this dilemma? Madison’s theory
of the extensive
republic constituted a creative breakthrough in political thought because he proposed that
Americans could work out a new synthesis. This new federal model allowed the states
to control their local affairs while giving the new central government
authority in matters concerning all members of the Union. The third theme, responsible exercise of freedom, is the focus of a discussion of the choice made by German citizens to support
Adolf Hitler and the Nazi regime during the early 1930s. The notion of “the
people” as a group not to be trusted is woven throughout political thinking.
Aristotle was suspicious of Greek democracy. Alexis de Tocqueville worried
about democratic despotism. John Stuart Mill worried about the tyranny of the
majority. Why did people vote for the Nazis? The choice of Hitler was fateful;
it doomed German democracy, brought on World War II, made the Holocaust
possible, and split Germany into two parts from 1945 to 1990. A number of
conditions in Germany at the time certainly contributed to the election
results. But in the end, the Nazi experience illuminates the difficulty of
bearing the burden of freedom under adverse conditions. Too few people in
Germany were dedicated strongly enough to the Weimar Republic and to democratic
values. The Nazi experience raises this question: Which values, which
circumstances, and which leadership judgments make the responsible exercise of
freedom possible? The final case study about politics and
choice explores President John F. Kennedy’s handling of the Cuban missile
crisis in 1962, which came about when it was discovered that the Soviet Union
had placed offensive nuclear missiles in Cuba. The first choice made by Kennedy
was to ensure that the missiles were removed. His second choice was to decide
the means by which missile removal was to come about. The final decision boiled
down to either conducting air strikes on the missile sites or instituting a
blockade around the island to pressure Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev to
remove the missiles. No other choice during the cold war better illustrates the
theme of power
politics. Chapter Objectives After reading this chapter, you
should...
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