Chapter 10: The Political Values of Political Actors

Chapter Summary

Chapters 6 through 9 dealt with political philosophical questions about what the good life looks like and what the major political ideologies contribute to this discussion. Chapter 10 considers whether this is all merely talk. Just because theorists of liberal democracy say they value justice and believe in individual freedom does not mean that countries professing to be liberal democracies practice what they preach. Similar philosophical questions can be asked about communist countries and social democratic nations. Therefore, the focus of chapter 10 is, How do the actual political values of political actors compare with values such as peace, liberty, and welfare? What do the professed values of political actors really mean? Can political actors harmonize different, sometimes competing, values? Finally, how do the values of political leaders differ from the values held by common citizens?

The guiding hypothesis for this chapter is fourfold:

            First, the political values of political actors are rooted in their vital needs, fundamental interests, and perceived desires.

            Second, the struggle over political values is conditioned by differing interpretations of needs, interests, and desires by diverse political actors and by the historical distribution of power. These factors make for both conflict and consensus in politics.

            Third, the world of politics often contains serious gaps between professed values and actual behavior.

            Fourth, although prediction is hazardous, the future will probably include a major constitutional and democratic struggle between what we might call broad values and narrow values. This struggle will manifest itself in a number of ways, including in a struggle between broader global needs and narrower national interests.

One of the key factors determining how nations act is concern for what is in the national interest. The national interest, to a significant degree, is determined by such issues as security and peace for the nation; the professed commitment to liberty, human rights and democracy; the desire for justice, which demands a balancing of liberty and equality; and the need for welfare and economic well-being of all citizens.

Of course, to an important degree, these values are shaped by the views of citizens. Chapter 10 also investigates what citizens believe. What shapes their values? How do these values vary from country to country? There is considerable evidence that the values of the people who make up political communities are rooted in, and correlated with, a hierarchy of human needs: for sustenance and safety, for belonging and esteem, and for intellectual, aesthetic, and social fulfillment.

Of related importance is the perceived gap between popular values (the values held by the individuals who make up the nation) and national values (the values of governing leaders, elites, and parties). The normal assumption is that in genuinely democratic countries national and popular values are pretty much in agreement. But is this the case? There is some evidence that, in the United States, political elites are more respectful of civil liberties than is the public at large. To some critics, this is a good thing because the values of typical citizens can often be fickle and uninformed. Many public surveys confirm that citizens are remarkably ignorant of basic political facts. However, this view has been challenged by recent research that shows that basic policy preferences of Americans are actually consistent and not subject to irrational changes.

Our investigation of values invites both hopeful and fearful forecasts. Individual values are correlated with a hierarchy of needs, and it becomes obvious why such values are firmly rooted in human biology, psychology, and sociology. Thus, such fundamental values cannot be so easily ignored by governing elites. However, we must be concerned about the ways these values can come into conflict, either within a nation or between nations.

Chapter Objectives

After reading this chapter, you should be able to...

• discuss what values are and how they affect politics.
• explain what the national interest is and what factors affect it.
• discuss what popular values are and whether popular values and elite values come into conflict.
• discuss the role of interest groups and how class and power affect the way political values are interpreted.

Suggested Readings

The following readings supplement those suggested in chapter 10 of the text.

Brace, Paul, and Barbara Hinckley. Follow the Leader: Opinion Polls and the Modern Presidents. New York: Basic Books, 1992.

Delli Carpini, Michael X., and Scott Keeter. What Americans Know About Politics and Why It Matters. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996.

Eckstein, Harry, ed. Can Democracy Take Root in Post-Soviet Russia? New York: Rowman and Littlefield, 1998.

Esposito, John L. Islam and Politics. 4th ed. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1998.

Flanigan, William H., and Nancy H. Zingale. Political Behavior of the American Electorate. 10th ed. Washington, D.C.: CQ Press, 2002.

Ginsberg, Benjamin, and Martin Shefter. Politics by Other Means. New York: Basic Books, 2000.

Kepel, Gilles. Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam. Trans. Anthony Roberts. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2002.

Lakoff, George. Moral Politics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996.

Nie, Norman H., Jane Junn, and Kenneth Stehlik-Barry. Education and Democratic Citizenship in America. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996.

Nye, Joseph, Philip Zelikow, and David King, eds. Why People Don’t Trust Government. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1997.

Annotated Links

The following links will help you explore the themes of chapter 10 on the Web.

Amnesty International

To learn more about the principle of justice, visit Amnesty International’s Web site. Amnesty is a well-known organization that campaigns to free all prisoners of conscience, ensure fair and prompt trials for political prisoners, abolish cruel treatment of prisoners, end political killings and disappearances, and ensure other human rights. The Amnesty International site lists its current campaigns and recommends action in the form of letter writing. The “library” for this Web site is searchable by country, region, and theme.

Freedom House

Freedom House is a nonprofit, nonpartisan organization that advocates worldwide democracy and freedom. In addition to providing news and press releases, the Freedom House Web site is an excellent source for research and publications. The site includes country ratings, global survey results, a freedom map, and online editions of the Freedom House Monitor.

The Gallup Organization

For over seventy years the Gallup Organization has employed public opinion polling to study human nature and behavior around the world. The organization has offices in forty countries. The Gallup site offers extensive analysis of polling data on a variety of political and public policy issues and is a valuable resource for assessing the political climate of many societies.

Human Rights Watch (HRW)

Human Rights Watch is an important nongovernmental organization that works to expose human rights violations and hold abusers accountable. The HRW Web site includes a powerful collection of photo essays along with the latest news concerning human rights. In addition, the site offers a listing of current HRW campaigns worldwide. Modern global issues are identified on the site and explored with news releases, publications, commentaries, and world reports.

The International Relations and Security Network (ISN)

The International Relations and Security Network is a Swiss contribution to Partnership for Peace. ISN provides information services including searchable reference databases and access to new publications. An integral part of ISN is “Security Watch,” a service from Reuters containing daily news briefs on world affairs.

The Center for Responsive Politics

Opensecrets.org is the Web site of the Center for Responsive Politics, a research group that tracks money in politics and money’s effect on elections and public policy. The site outlines exactly who’s giving to whose campaign in what form. The data are organized into numerous categories such as industries, PACs, and, lobbyists on the “who’s giving” side, and Congress, presidents, and political parties on the “who’s getting” side. Be sure to take note of the section that outlines the financial power of interest groups in politics.