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A B C D E F G H I J L M N O P R S T U V W accommodation Political behavior that seeks a compromise between competing interests and is marked by cooperation, bargaining, and balloting. advise and consent The U.S. Senate provides advice to the president on treaties and key appointments through the mechanism of hearings and approves these items with a vote requiring a two-thirds majority. anticolonialism Political movement seeking to achieve independence for colonies, thus permitting countries to govern themselves. anti-Semitism Prejudice against, or dislike of, Jews often leading to discrimination or persecution. apartheid Former South African legal system of racial discrimination-- separate political, economic, and social life for blacks and whites-- designed to perpetuate white supremacy. aristocracy A privileged, educated, and powerful upper class that rules society. Interpreted by Plato as government by the best. arms control Negotiations and agreements that limit the production of weapons by nations. autarky Doctrine of self-sufficiency that calls for protecting a nation against interfering economic activity by other nations. authoritarian Anti-democratic political stance that favors placing political power in the hands of an elite group or a dictator. balance of power The belief that peace is maintained when power is distributed evenly among competing nations so that no single state or combination of states is dominant. balance of principles Edmond Burke’s view of the British constitution as a monarchy directed by laws, balanced by an aristocracy, and controlled by a democracy. behavioralism Approach to social science that emphasizes empirically observable, discoverable, and explicable patterns of behavior. behavioral revolution Influential post-World War II movement in the social sciences promoting the application of scientific methodology to the study of complex human behavior. Bill of Rights The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution that establish such individual rights as freedom of speech and religion. bipolarity The distribution of power between two nation-states. bourgeoisie For Marx, the social class composed of modern capitalists, owners of the means of social production, and employers of wage-labor. In general, the middle class in a capitalist society. bureaucracy Governmental departments, ministries, agencies, and officials that carry out public policy, ideally in a rational, efficient, impartial, and stable manner. capitalism Economic system marked by private ownership of the means of production and exchange, a market economy, economic competition, free trade, and consumer sovereignty. carrying capacity Ability of the earth to support life without suffering deterioration. civic culture Set of attitudes toward citizenship and politics held by those in a particular nation. civil disobedience Doctrine advocating that an individual may peacefully, publicly, and selectively disobey a morally outrageous government policy, although the individual must be prepared to face the ramifications for such disobedience. civil liberties Rights that allow citizens to evaluate how the government operates and to assess the character and performance of parties and political leaders. class Division of people by their economic, social, and political standing, such as upper class, middle class, and lower class. class struggle In the modern period, conflict between the bourgeoisie (capitalist oppressor) and the proletariat (working oppressed). class values Political interests shaped by social classes, such as worker or capitalist. collective security Joining of countries into an organization to maintain international peace and law. Their collective strength deters or punishes aggression by member nations. The United Nations is one such organization. communism Ideology that upholds equality by demanding an end to private wealth and insisting on public ownership of property and the means of production. connection of powers Connection of political power among governmental bodies, as opposed to the separation of powers. conservatism In the American context, an ideology that is respectful of traditional values and institutions, including private property, enterprise, and family. Generally favors liberty over equality. constitution Founding document or documents that spell out the structure and rules of a political system and reflect the political culture. conversion The peaceful transformation of a political opponent through voluntary agreement and free choice. The instruments of conversion include love, conscience, and reason. creative breakthrough The significantly fruitful resolution of a problem that conventional wisdom deems insoluble. deliberative function That part of the legislative process consisting of discussion and debate on issues. democracy Rule by the people, usually via elected representatives, under a constitution that provides for the protection of basic rights and majority rule. democratic socialism Ideology committed to popular, constitutional rule and the protection of basic rights while maintaining that key aspects of economic life must be publicly owned, or socially controlled, to ensure an equitable distribution of the community's wealth. demographic transition theory Theory that posits that as societies economically grow and become more industrialized, population growth begins to subside. This occurred in Europe and the United States after the advent of the Industrial Revolution. destruction Political game in which violence and other instruments of force are used to annihilate one’s opponent. d’etente A relaxation of tensions between nation-states. developed countries Affluent, highly industrialized, and technologically advanced nations located predominantly in the Northern Hemisphere. devolution Surrendering of powers to local authorities by a central government. dialectal change Major societal change arising from the clash of two opposing ideas, forces, or social contradictions. dictatorship of the proletariat Rule, sometimes coercive, by the overwhelming majority of workers in their own self-interest. direct democracy Form of democracy in which citizens vote directly on matters of public policy instead of electing representatives. disarmament Negotiations and agreements whereby countries agree to reduce or eliminate weapons. divine law Law revealed by God and found in scripture that helps humans understand natural law while guiding them toward their supernatural end. domination Policy of exercising direct or indirect control, sometimes despotic, over others. due process Right that forbids such governmental action as the systematic destruction of a religious group, race, or class, or such spuriously "legal" action as a trial based on false evidence or coerced confession. Earth Summit Global environmental conference held in June 1972 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. A number of other world environmental conferences have since taken place. ecology The relationship between organisms and their environments. economic well-being Level of income, food, health care, and education, that satisfies minimum quality of life standards and permits full growth and development. egalitarianism Political goal, stressing equality, that unites socialists and traditional communists. elite Select group, often characterized by superior political, economic, social or cultural skills, or power. emerging economies Economies of former communist bloc countries that began shifting to a free market system with the end of the Cold War. Hungary, Poland, and the Czech Republic are examples of emerging economies. empiricism Approach to social science concerned with political phenomena--what has been, what is and what will be. Methods of empirical science include observation, description, and reasoning. Enlightenment Eighteenth-century, Western-dominated movement that believed in reason, freedom, and progress. equality Concept that emphasizes equal political and social rights or the condition of being neither superior nor inferior. eternal law The reason of God ("God's grand design") by which all things are governed. ethics The study of the nature of moral standards and choices of judgment and behavior. ethnic cleansing Forceful displacement of a group from a given territory based on their religion, ethnicity, race, or nationality. May involve a variety of methods, including mass murder, military force, or intimidation through torture or rape. European Union Regional organization built on the foundation of free trade. Seeks total European economic integration. explanation Process of fitting the pieces of a scientific puzzle together. extensive republic Madison’s term for a federal republic governing a large territory. Fabians Group of British intellectuals in the 19th and 20th centuries committed to the gradual achievement of socialism. faction Self-interested group that acts in ways inconsistent with the common good. fascism Authoritarian political ideology characterized by dictatorial leadership, an oppressive one-party system, strong nationalism, and aggressive militarism. federalism Governmental system that combines central authority for nationwide concerns with state, provincial, or regional authority for local concerns, with certain powers shared by, and certain powers denied to, both levels of government. finite resources Resources, such as minerals, petroleum, and safe drinking water, whose quantities are believed to be limited. freedom Power over one’s destiny, interpreted negatively as the absence of restraints and positively as the ability to fulfill peaceful and creative potentialities. functionalism Concept in international politics that asserts that the barriers to cooperation and peaceful conflict resolution can best be overcome when peoples and nations work together to meet common needs and advance mutual interests. Emphasis is on such functional areas as trade, health, agriculture, transportation, and environment. general will The constant will of the sovereign people; the public good or public interest that is always right. genocide Systematic mass destruction of a national, ethnic, racial, or religious group. globalization Rapid and explosive increase in integrative international economic activity--trade, investment, banking. Built on the twin pillars of capitalism and high-tech communications. global warming Theory that posits that because of the emission and trapping of heat-absorbing gases, such as carbon dioxide, CFCs, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone, the planet's temperature is rising. goal An objective. grand debate Function of the United Nations whereby problems can be presented, discussed, and analyzed, ideas can be tested, and the strength of policies can be measured. green house effect The trapping of heat-absorbing gases within the earth’s atmosphere, thereby increasing the temperature of the planet. See also global warming. hegemony When one nation-state has overwhelming, dominating power. Holocaust Systematic extermination of six million Jews in World War II by the Nazis and their supporters. human rights Freedom—legal, political, or moral—from government violations of people’s integrity; civil and political liberties; and satisfaction of vital human needs such as food, shelter, clothing, health care, and education. hypothesis Tentative assertion--usually attempting to explain a cause and effect--made in order to guide the empirical and logical investigation of a problem. integration Groups of states, at the regional or global level, expanding their economic interaction to the point where the separate national economies become increasingly interdependent. interest aggregation Means of selecting priorities in which political actors build support for certain proposals and not for others, usually by working with other like-minded individuals or groups. interest articulation Expression of political actors’ needs, interests, and desires, as by voting, speaking at public forums, or joining political parties or interest groups. interest group Members of the public who organize in an attempt to shape public policy on issues of concern to them. International Monetary Fund (IMF) Specialized agency of the United Nations whose concerns include stabilizing national financial systems, promoting international monetary cooperation and exchange stability, and managing debt. iron law of oligarchy Robert Michel’s theory in Political Parties which holds that a small group of insiders will inevitably take charge in a large organization. isolation Policy of withdrawal from, and nonparticipation in, world affairs. judicial review The ability of the U.S. Supreme Court to declare an act of Congress unconstitutional. justice Variously defined as fairness, rightfulness, giving persons their due, and a balancing of liberty, equality, and fraternity. laissez faire Economic policy in which commerce receives minimum interference from government. law Rule established by authority or custom; according to Thomas Aquinas, "an ordinance of reason for the common good, promulgated by him who has the care of the community." Lebensraum German “living space”; sought by the Nazis as revenge for lands lost in World War I and for the redemption of ethnic Germans. legislative function Formal responsibility of legislatures to make laws. least developed countries (LDCs) World's poorest nations. least free The powerless, the deprived, and the maltreated; often the poor, racial minorities, women, and the politically oppressed. liberal democracy Constitutional government characterized by popular rule, protection of basic rights, and political and economic competition. liberalism Modern political ideology that favors government intervention in the interest of public welfare, social justice, and fair play. libertarianism In the American context, an ideology that consistently opposes government intervention in economic affairs and favors expansion of personal freedoms. liberty Freedom from slavery, imprisonment, captivity, or any form of unlawful or arbitrary control; the sum of rights of a free individual or group. lion and fox Game of politics as understood by Machiavelli, in which a state’s vital interests are at stake and must be protected by using both force and craft. Loyal Opposition Name given to the opposing, or minority party, in the United Kingdom. majority rule Power of one-half of the members, plus one, of any decision-making group to bind the remainder of that group to a decision. materialism Belief that a society's economic structure is the underlying force behind all societal institutions, including law, politics, ethics, religion, philosophy, ideology, and art. meritocracy Achievement of employment and advancement by merit as opposed to other means, such as patronage or personal favor. Often applies to systems of personnel recruitment in government by civil service examination. metanoia Fundamental transformation of a world view. mixed economy An economy that is both privately and publicly controlled. model Simplified version of what occurs in reality; highlights the important elements in the subject of interest. modified laissez faire political economy Economy without government intervention; compatible with liberty, the satisfaction of human needs, and the advancement of individual and social happiness. multilateralism Groups of countries operating through international organizations and engaged in collective problem solving and problem resolution. multinational corporation (MNC) Private companies operating in more than one country. multipolarity When power is distributed among several nation-states. national interests Fundamental needs and interests of nations, such as security, liberty, justice, and welfare, essential for independence, prosperity, and power. nationalism Strong sense of cultural belonging and group loyalty generally used to achieve political, economic, and social freedom. natural law That part of the eternal law known through reason, such as the ability to discern good from evil. Nazism Particularly racist, anti-Semitic, and militantly aggressive variety of fascism that characterized German politics under Adolf Hitler's dictatorship. neo-colonialism Economic and political control by, or dependence on, a former colonial ruler or Big Power. neofunctionalism Theory that argues that integration must take place at the political level as well as at the economic, technical, and humanitarian levels. Working within traditional international organizations, this theory, unlike traditional functionalism, does not avoid political problems or nationalism. neoimperialism Body of thought that asserts that multinational corporations, owned and controlled by powerful forces in the developed Northern Hemisphere, take advantage of poor, developing countries in the Southern Hemisphere by exploiting cheap labor, squandering natural resources, and reaping enormous profits. neutrality Legally based policy of remaining nonaligned with adversaries for the duration of a war. Can also be practiced in times of peace by taking an officially neutral position on a variety of international issues. new balance of power New multipolar balance of power that may include a number of major nation-states as well as regional organizations. While military might would be retained, greater emphasis would be placed on economic might. See also balance of power. newly industrialized economies (NIEs) Several of the dynamic and relatively prosperous Asian economies along the Pacific Rim, exclusive of Japan. They include South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore, and Thailand. nonalignment Policy whereby states refuse to participate in the struggle between major powers or superpowers. nonrenewable resources Irreplaceable resources, such as fossil fuels. nonviolent civilian defense Body of thought that maintains that a breakthrough to a more peaceful world can be achieved if nonviolence is seriously considered. Espouses the notion that traditional means of dealing with conflict are inadequate and in some cases have proved disastrous. oligarchy Generally understood as government by the few, especially for corrupt and selfish purposes. According to Plato, it meant government by the rich and money loving. To Aristotle, it meant rule by the rich and noble. ozone layer Thin layer of ozone that encircles the earth’s stratosphere and protects the earth from the full force of the sun’s ultraviolet rays. partisan One who, more often than not, votes his or her party on key issues. patriarchy Belief in, or practice of, male superiority or domination. peace The absence of war. A condition of harmony between nation-states that enables them to cooperatively, lawfully, and voluntarily work out conflicts and deal with disputes. peaceful settlement Resolution of disputes through nonviolent means, such as influence, inquiry, mediation, and conciliation. players Contestants in the game of politics who win or lose, who compete or cooperate in pursuit of certain goals, who exercise power or will, who enjoy or suffer. pluralism Political school maintaining that balance in diverse political communities is best achieved through a representative democracy acting in accord with policies that advance the general welfare, while still recognizing that a rough approximation of the public interest emerges from the clash of contending interests. policy In the context of political science, a government course or general plan of action designed to solve problems or achieve specified goals. polis Greek city-state. political actor Individual or group that expresses and shapes public values, struggles for power, and decides issues of public policy. political creativity Achievement, in both theory and practice, of a more fruitful, ethical, empirical, and prudential understanding of politics. political culture The distinguishing attitudes, habits, and behavior patterns of a political community. political health The political, economic, and social well-being of the political community judged in terms of peace and peaceful constitutional change, security, liberty, democratic governance, justice, economic prosperity, and ecological balance. political ideologies Beliefs and practices that guide political actors in real political communities. political obligation Concept that examines why people obey or disobey those who demand their political allegiance, such as a government, a law, or a state. political party Organized group that seeks to elect candidates to government office. It represents a “team” that seeks to control government. political science Field of study characterized by a search for critical understanding of the good political life, significant empirical understanding, and wise political and policy judgments. political values Important beliefs about the goals, principles, and policies that are worthwhile in public affairs. politics Process whereby public values are debated, political actors cooperate and struggle for power, and policy judgments are made and implemented. polyarchy Rule by the many in a democratic and constitutional system popular sovereignty Constitutional rule by the many. Also known as republican rule. populism In the American context, an ideology that favors government intervention in economic affairs and may oppose expansion of some "liberal" personal freedoms. See also liberalism. positivism Philosophy stating that humans can know only what is based on observable, scientific facts or on data derived from experience. poverty Level of income, food, health care, education, shelter that is below minimum quality of life standards; usually precludes full growth and development. power Political, legal, economic, military, social, or moral ability of one political actor to get another to do or not to do something. power politics Political pattern characterized by the acquisition, preservation, and balancing of power. Most often used to describe the competitive-conflictive behavior of the United States and Soviet Union during the Cold War. prescriptive constitution Successful and proven ways of conducting social, economic, and political business that originate in a community’s history. preventive diplomacy Action by the United Nations to help states, often smaller ones, settle disputes peacefully, before the disputes escalate and involve major powers. principle Basic truth or doctrine used as a basis of reasoning or a guide to behavior. proletariat Class of modern wage laborers. public interests Community interests that transcend the personal interests of individuals or groups and express the best long-range interests of the nation. prudence Wise judgment about the practical tasks of politics, respectful both of sound values and the limitations and opportunities of social reality. racism Belief in the superiority or inferiority of a given race resulting in discrimination against, or maltreatment of, the supposed inferior. renewable resources Resources, such as forests, that can be replaced. representative function One of the roles performed by legislative bodies. Legislators represent and look out for the interests of their constituents who elected them to office. representative government Constitutional system in which government leadership is determined, directly or indirectly, by decisions of the electorate. republicanism Constitutional rule by the many. responsible citizenship The sensible response of citizens to social, economic, and political tasks and problems. revisionists Intellectual tradition, led by Eduard Bernstein, that agreed with Marx’s outlook but opted for a peaceful, evolutionary path to socialism. See also Marxism, socialism. revolution of rising expectations Phrase characterizing the hopes for a better way of life, especially among peoples in the developing Third World. rule of law Idea of regularized and consistent laws that are not changed by the whim of leaders or by circumstances like anarchy. rules Agreed-on procedures that regulate the conduct of the political game. sanctions Penalties, often economic, imposed on states that violate human rights or international law. science The critical and systematic search for knowledge. scientific method Pattern of reasoning used in the systematic search for knowledge. It involves identifying the problem, articulating a guiding hypothesis, obtaining evidence to test the hypothesis, and validating and explaining the significance of the hypothesis and the findings on which it rests. separate but equal Constitutional doctrine in the United States from 1896 to 1954 that held that equality was not violated if blacks were required to use separate facilities in transportation, education, and other public areas, as long as the services were equal. separation of powers Division of powers into legislative, executive, and judicial in the U.S. government. sexism Discrimination based on gender. social contract Agreement in which a number of people unite to affect their a common purpose. stakes That which can be gained in victory or lost in defeat. standard operating procedures (SOPs) Guidelines and procedures used by government organizations in carrying out policy. steady state philosophy/society Condition of ecological balance in which mindless growth and exploitation of the environment would cease. strike Withdrawal of important services by one party against another in order to advance one’s own objectives. supervisory function The legislative responsibility to monitor and oversee the work of the executive and the bureaucracy. sustainable development Rational and equitable approach to development that attempts to balance societal needs against environmental limitations. theory Larger body of principles offered to explain phenomena. third-party activities Conflict resolution techniques used by the United Nations and other international actors not involved in a given dispute. They include good offices, conciliation, investigation, mediation, arbitration, observation, truce supervision, and interposition. timocracy Government by people of honor and ambition. totalitarianism Ideology that espouses the complete political, economic, and social control of people and institutions by a dictatorial, single-party regime that is driven by a dogmatism, possesses a monopoly of weapons and communications, and is in charge of a centrally directed economy and society. tragedy of the commons Ecological metaphor calling attention to the overuse and eventual destruction of free-range grazing land. trusteeship Commission from the United Nations to a country to look after a region, territory, or colony until the people of that land are ready for independence and self-government. tyranny The lawless rule of one man. ultra vires Beyond the law. ultranationalism Extreme nationalism that leads to the denial of freedom for minority ethnic groups within a nation or to aggression against others. unitary government Form of government in which all major power and policy emanates from the central government. United Nations Development Program (UNDP) Provides development advice, planning, and grant support to countries of the developing world. utilitarianism Creed that accepts utility and the search for happiness as its foundation. utopia Perfect political and social order. Utopian Socialists Nineteenth-century writers who stressed cooperation and the possibilities of using education to change the social and economic environments. validation Corroboration to determine a fit between a hypothesis and evidence. war Military activity, or armed violence, carried out in a systematic and organized way by nation-states (or organized groups that aspire to become nation-states) against other nation-states. welfare Government provisions for, or contributions to, individual needs for employment, income, food, housing, health, and literacy. welfare state Society that provides social services to ensure a better family life, health care, housing; protection against unemployment; and security in old age. wipe-out Pattern of politics in which one player, insisting on total domination, encounters resistance and employs brute physical force to destroy an opponent. World Bank Specialized agency of the United Nations, also known as the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), that makes loans to countries for development purposes. Writ of Habeas
Corpus Literally, “produce the body”; legal document requiring
that a prisoner be brought before a court to determine whether he or she is
lawfully being held in jail. |
