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SKETCHES OF MIDDLE EASTERN LEADERS
Following are biographical sketches of some former and present leading political figures in the Middle East.
Abbas, Mahmud (Abu Mazen; born 1935). President of the Palestinian Authority (2005– ). With Yasir Arafat and others, in 1957 founded Fatah, the dominant faction in the Palestine Liberation Organization. Initiated secretive contacts with pacifist Jewish groups in the 1970s and 1980s. Considered an architect of the 1993 Oslo accords. Became primary negotiator for the Palestinians in early 2003. Appointed the first prime minister of the PA in March 2003. Resigned as prime minister in October 2003 because of conflicts with Arafat, Islamic Jihad, and Hamas. Elected chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization in November 2004. After his election to the PA presidency in January 2005, called for an end to the al-Aqsa intifada and convinced Palestinian factions to halt attacks on Israeli targets.
Abd al-Aziz Al Saud (Ibn Saud; 1880–1953). King of Saudi Arabia (1932–1953). Defeated King Hussein of the Hijaz, forcing him to abdicate and leading to the merger of the Hijaz and Najd kingdoms into Saudi Arabia in 1932. Worked to consolidate his realm and improve relations with his enemies in other Arab states. Granted a sixty-year oil concession in 1933 to Standard Oil of California, initiating the development and exploitation of Saudi Arabia’s vast petroleum resources. In 1945 helped form the Arab League.
Abdallah I (Abdallah ibn Hussein; 1882–1951). Amir of Transjordan (1921–1946); King of Jordan (1946–1951). Son of Hussein ibn Ali (later king of Hijaz). Played a major role in the Arab Revolt against the Ottomans during World War I. In 1920 occupied Transjordan and was recognized as amir in 1923 by the British, who held a mandate over the region. Established Transjordan (on the East Bank of the Jordan River) as an entity separate from Palestine (on the West Bank of the Jordan), extracting a pledge from the British that the Jewish national home promised in the Balfour Declaration and incorporated into the British mandate did not include Jewish settlement in Transjordan.
Sent his army, the Arab Legion, to assist British troops in Iraq and Syria during World War II. In 1946, rewarded with independence by Britain, renamed country Jordan, and became king. Abdallah’s army captured Jerusalem's Old City after the partition of Palestine in the 1948 and in the first Arab-Israeli war held the West Bank. Angered Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and Syria, which supported an independent Arab Palestine, by annexing Jerusalem and the West Bank. Accused of betraying the Palestinians by negotiating with Israel. Assassinated in Jerusalem on July 20, 1951, by a Palestinian.
Abdallah II (Abdallah ibn Hussein; born 1962). King of Jordan. Ascended the throne after the death of his father, King Hussein ibn Talal, in February 1999. Son of the English-born queen Mona. Educated in military academies in the United States and Britain. Was a career soldier and commander of the Special Forces prior to being unexpectedly named crown prince two weeks before the death of his father. Embarked on an ambitious program of economic reform. Brought to the political elite a pool of younger, business-oriented individuals but repressed domestic opposition, particularly the professional associations. Further consolidated relations with the European Union, Japan, and the United States—Jordan’s key donors. Repaired damaged relations with Syria and the Gulf states.
Abdallah al-Salim Al Sabah (1895–1965). Amir of Kuwait (1961–1965). Became amir in 1961 when the British protectorate over the emirate ended and Kuwait became independent. Deterred a threatened Iraqi effort to make Kuwait a province by obtaining British aid. Used Kuwait's vast oil wealth to modernize the country and provide Kuwaitis with one of the world’s highest standards of living.
Abdallah ibn Abd al-Aziz Al Saud (born 1924). King of Saudi Arabia (2005– ). Appointed by his half-brother King Fahd as crown prince in 1982. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, became increasingly active in running the affairs of the government as Fahd’s health deteriorated. Floated an Arab-Israeli peace plan at the March 2003 Beirut Arab League summit that called for Arab states' recognition of Israel if it agreed to a return to the prewar 1967 borders. Ascended to the throne on August 1, 2005, after King Fahd’s death.
Aflaq, Michel (1910–1989). Syrian political thinker. Co-founded and established the ideological underpinnings of what would become the Baath Party along with Salah al-Din al-Bitar. Promoted pan-Arabism, greatly influencing the postwar history of many Arab countries. Influential in bringing about the Egyptian-Syrian unification of 1958–1961.
Ahmedinejad, Mahmoud (born 1956). President of the Islamic Republic of Iran (2005– ). Joined the Office of Strengthening Union before Iranian student members took over the U.S. embassy in Iran in 1979 (but his participation, if any, in the hostage crisis is unclear). Joined the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps during the Iran-Iraq War. Elected as conservative mayor of Tehran (2003–2005) by the city council. Defeated Ali Akhbar Hashemi Rafsanjani in presidential runoff elections in June 2005. Took office in August 2005, promising to defend Iran’s nuclear program.
Allawi, Iyad (born 1945). Interim prime minister of Iraq (2004–2005). Became a member of the Iraqi Baath Party in the 1960s and went into exile in Britain in 1971. Survived an assassination attempt in 1978 presumably ordered by Iraqi president Saddam Hussein. Began working subsequently for British intelligence and organizing against Hussein. Formed the Iraqi National Accord in 1990 with British, Jordanian, Saudi, Turkish, and U.S. support. Recruited by the CIA in 1992; began to coordinate attacks on Iraq. Organized an unsuccessful military coup in 1996. In the lead up to the 2003 invasion of Iraq, channeled a report to British intelligence from an Iraqi officer who claimed that Iraq could deploy weapons of mass destruction within forty-five minutes. Returned from exile in 2003 and was appointed to the Iraqi Governing Council following the overthrow of Hussein. In May 2004, chosen by the council to be interim prime minister until legislative elections and the formation of a new government. Won a seat in the transitional Iraqi legislature as a member of the third-place Iraqi List in elections held in January 2005.
Aoun, Michel (born 1936). Former commander of the Maronite brigades of the Lebanese Army and appointed prime minister of a provisional government by outgoing president Amin Gemayel in December 1988. Headed a renegade military government in East Beirut opposed to the constitutional civilian government headed by Selim al-Hoss. Led unsuccessful Christian opposition to the Syrian presence in Lebanon, particularly in 1989. Refused to recognize the 1989 Taif Accords ending the civil war. Fled to France in August 1991 after being forced from the presidential palace. Became the leader of the ultra-right-wing Free National Movement. Returned to Lebanon in 2005 and won a set in the Chamber of Deputies.
Arafat, Yasir (1929–2004). Chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization (1968–2004); president of the Palestinian Authority (1996–2004). In the late 1950s founded Fatah, which through guerrilla attacks against Israel sparked the Palestinian resistance movement and eventually became the leading organization within the PLO. Gained U.S. recognition of the PLO in December 1988 after explicitly renouncing terrorism and accepting UN Resolutions 242 and 338. Supported Iraq during the 1990–91 Persian Gulf crisis and war. Signed the Declaration of Principles with Israel in 1993 and took further steps toward Palestinian autonomy with the 1994 signing of the Gaza-Jericho accord. Winner, along with Israeli leaders Yitzhak Rabin and Shimon Peres, of the 1994 Nobel Peace Prize. In January 1996, elected the first president of the Palestinian Authority, administering Palestinian areas from which Israel had withdrawn on the West Bank and in Gaza. Signed the Wye River Memorandum with Israeli prime minister Benjamin Netanyahu in October 1998 for the return of a further 13 percent of land in the West Bank to Palestinian control. Took part in the Israeli-Palestinian talks, along with Israeli prime minister Ehud Barak, held at Camp David in 2000 that failed to produce an agreement. Essentially confined to the PA’s Ramallah compound by Israel through force and threat of exile from March 2002 to weeks before his death on November 11, 2004. Criticized by Israel and the United States for not doing enough to stop Palestinian attacks on Israeli targets and dismissed as a negotiating partner by them, forcing him to appoint the first Palestinian prime minister, Mahmoud Abbas, in 2003. Airlifted in November 2004 to Paris, where he died of an undisclosed illness.
Arif, Abd al-Rahman (born 1916). President of Iraq (1966–1968). Became president when his brother, President Abd al-Salam Arif, was killed in a helicopter crash April 13, 1966. During the 1967 Arab-Israeli war, sent troops to the Sinai and Jordan; cut off oil supplies to the West; severed diplomatic relations with the United States, Britain, and West Germany. The Arab defeat, troubles with Iraq Kurds, and economic problems led to his overthrow in a bloodless military coup on July 17, 1968. Living in exile.
Arif, Abd al-Salam (1921–1966). President of Iraq (1963–1966). Headed the 1963 Baathist army coup that overthrew Iraqi dictator Abd al-Karim al-Qasim. Improved relations with oil companies and dropped Iraqi claims to Kuwait. Died in a helicopter crash near Basra on April 13, 1966.
al-Asad, Bashar (born 1965). President of Syria (2000– ). Son of long-time Syrian president Hafiz al-Asad, studied ophthalmology in London in the 1990s until called home to be groomed for the presidency of Syria. Became president at age thirty-five following the death of his father in 2000. Tried initially to institute some economic reforms and allow greater political openness, but halted such measures when Syrians appeared to want more and deeper changes. Challenged to satisfy the “old guard” who gained power under his father while also bringing into the government a “new guard” of relatively young technocrats. Promised a series of skeptically received political reforms at the Baath Party Congress held in June 2005. Withdrew the Syrian military from Lebanon in spring 2005 under pressure from the Lebanese and the international community (led by France, the United States, and the United Nations). Improved relations with Jordan, but continues to grapple with navigating Syria through the politics of the Middle East.
al-Asad, Hafiz (1930–2000). President of Syria (1971–2000). Became Syrian defense minister in 1965; headed the nationalist faction of the Baath Party. After participating in a failed coup in February 1969, deposed President Nureddin al-Atassi in November 1970. Assumed the presidency in March 1971. Improved relations with Saudi Arabia and other conservative Arab states as well as with Egypt. With Egypt, launched the October 1973 War against Israel. Reestablished relations with the United States in 1974. (They had been severed in 1967.) Accepted Soviet military aid and advisers during the 1970s and 1980s. Sent Syrian forces into Lebanon in mid-1976 following an Arab League request in an attempt to stave off full-scale civil war. Supported non-Arab Iran in the Iran-Iraq War and joined the multinational coalition against Iraq during the 1990–91 Persian Gulf crisis and war. In 1994 pledged Syria’s willingness to seek “normal, peaceful relations” with Israel and later allegedly crafted a deal with Israeli prime minister Yitzhak Rabin on the return of the Golan Heights to Syria, but Rabin was assassinated before it could be made official. Rejected subsequent Israeli efforts to backpedal on the terms for the return of the Golan. Elected to his fifth seven-year term in February 1999 but died on June 10, 2000.
Atassi, Louai (1926–2003). Syrian army officer and statesman. Led the pro-Nasser military faction that seized control of the Syrian government in March 1963. Was commander in chief of Syria’s armed forces and president of the National Council from March to July 1963. Helped establish Baath Party predominance, ending its twenty-year clandestine existence. Resigned in 1963 and went into exile in Egypt in 1969. Died in Homs, Syria.
Atassi, Nureddin (1929–1992). Syrian president (1966–1970). Medical doctor who led the progressive faction of the Baath Party, favoring strong ties to the Soviet Union and a Marxist economy. Became president in 1966. Deposed by Hafiz al-Asad in a November 1970 bloodless coup and subsequently placed under house arrest. Transferred to Meze Military Prison in Damascus. Sent to Paris for medical treatment in 1992.
Awadallah, Bassam (born 1964). Most powerful representative of the new economic guard in Jordan under King Abdallah II. Formerly headed the economic unit at the royal court and was minister of planning and international cooperation. Appointed minister of finance in April 2005.
Aziz, Tariq (born 1936). Minister of information (1974–1977); deputy prime minister (1979–2003); foreign minister of Iraq (1979–1991). Rise to power was notable as a member of the Christian minority. Acted as Iraq’s chief negotiator throughout the Iran-Iraq War and the Persian Gulf crisis and war. In January 1991 met with U.S. secretary of state James A. Baker III in a failed attempt to avoid war. Appeared before the UN Security Council in May 1994, pleading on behalf of Iraqi president Saddam Hussein for the termination of sanctions against Iraq imposed after the Persian Gulf War. Negotiated for Iraq at the United Nations on the issue of sanctions and weapons inspections. Captured in April 2003 after the overthrown of Saddam Hussein’s Baathist government. Awaits trial by the new Iraqi regime for crimes against humanity.
Bakhtiar, Shapour (1914–1991). Iranian prime minister and opposition leader. Appointed by the shah in January 1979 to form a new civilian government before he left the country; expelled from membership in the National Front opposition coalition upon assuming the premiership. Resigned February 12, 1979, when forces loyal to Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini took control of the government. Fled to France and founded the National Resistance Movement. Assassinated in Paris in 1991.
al-Bakr, Ahmad Hassan (1912–1982). President of Iraq (1968–1979). Seized power in a bloodless coup on July 17, 1968, and assumed the presidency and premiership. Sought to end the Kurdish revolt by granting Kurds a measure of autonomy. After Iraq settled differences with Iran, which had armed the Kurds, Bakr ordered the military to crush them in March 1975. In April 1972 signed a fifteen-year friendship treaty with the Soviet Union. Resigned for health reasons in July 1979.
Bani-Sadr, Abolhassan (born 1932). President of the Islamic Republic of Iran (1980–1981). Opponent of the shah of Iran, exiled to France where he became a leader of students abroad opposed to the shah. In direct contact with the exiled Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini after 1972. Following the shah’s downfall, elected in January 1980 as first president of the Islamic Republic. In a victory for Iranian extremists, dismissed by Khomeini as president in June 1981. Fled to France in July 1981. Lives in Paris under French police protection.
Barak, Ehud (born 1942). Prime minister of Israel (1999–2001). Joined the Israel Defense Forces in 1959. Served as reconnaissance group commander during the June 1967 War and as tank battalion commander in the October 1973 War. In 1983 appointed head of the IDF Planning Branch and promoted to major general. Became the fourteenth chief of the IDF General Staff and promoted to lieutenant general, the highest rank in the Israeli military, in April 1991. Oversaw the IDF withdrawal from Gaza and Jericho under the May 1994 Gaza-Jericho agreement with the Palestine Liberation Organization and played a central role in the Israel-Jordan peace treaty signed in 1994. Appointed minister of the interior in July 1995 and served as foreign affairs minister from November 1995 until June 1996. Served as chairman of the Labor Party and a member of the Knesset until his election as prime minister in May 1999. Pushed for the unsuccessful Camp David talks of 2000 to bypass interim agreements and reach a final settlement with the Palestinians. Called for elections following the outbreak of the al-Aqsa intifada in September 2000 and was defeated in his reelection bid by Likud candidate Ariel Sharon in February 2001.
Barzani, Mustafa (1903–1979). General and leader of the Kurdistan Democratic Party. Led a Kurdish rebellion against the Baghdad government in 1974 after the collapse of a Kurdish autonomy agreement brokered in 1970. Fled into exile in Iran after Iraqi armed forces crushed the revolt in March 1975. Died in the United States.
Begin, Menachem (1913–1992). Prime minister of Israel (1977–1983). Commanded the Irgun underground from 1943 to 1948, launching a series of attacks against Palestinian Arabs and British mandate authorities and forces. Founded the Herut Party in 1948. Became prime minister of Israel in June 1977 as leader of the conservative Likud bloc. Winner, along with Egypt’s Anwar al-Sadat, of the 1978 Nobel Peace Prize. Signed the Camp David Accords with Egypt on March 26, 1979. Reelected in June 1981. Oversaw Israel's withdrawal from the Sinai in 1982 and the subsequent invasion of Lebanon in June of that year. Resigned office in August 1983 and retired from public life.
Ben-Gurion, David (1886–1973). Prime minister of Israel (1948–1953; 1955–1963). Expelled from Palestine during World War I by the Ottomans for his socialist and nationalist activities, which included helping found HaShomer, a Jewish defense organization. Arriving in New York, dove into Zionist-labor politics. Returned to Palestine, where he joined the Jewish Legion, a unit of the British army, and later became active in Mapai (Land of Israel's Worker Party, a, precursor to today's Labor Party), leading it for almost two decades. Headed the Jewish Agency and co-founded the Histadrut. Figured prominently in arming, supporting, and directing Jewish paramilitary organizations. Led the In Tel Aviv on May 14, 1948, read the public declaration of Israel’s independence. Became prime minister and defense minister of the new state, holding both posts until 1963, except for one two-year interlude. Participated along with Britain and France in instigating the Suez crisis of 1956. Resigned as premier in June 1963 but remained in the Knesset until 1970.
Ben-Zvi, Yitzhak (1884–1963). President of Israel (1952–1963). Went to Palestine in 1907 and helped found HaShomer, a Jewish defense organization. Exile by the Ottomans in 1915, went to New York and, with David Ben-Gurion, promoted the Zionist cause and established the HeHalutz (Pioneer) movement. After returning to Palestine, served in the Jewish Legion and became active in the Haganah. Signed the Israeli declaration of independence. Elected to the Knesset in 1949 and to the presidency on in 1952 after Chaim Weizmann’s death. Died in office in 1963.
Berri, Nabih (born 1938). Speaker of the Lebanese parliament (1992– ). Joined the Shiite Amal (Movement of the Dispossessed) shortly after its founding by Imam Musa al-Sadr in 1974. Elected to head Amal in 1980. Led Amal in the fighting during the Lebanese civil war, closely allying it with Syria. Became a minister under President Amin Gemayel but remained for the most part an opponent of the government. Became minister of state for southern reconstruction in a national unity government formed in 1984 and later served as minister of justice and of hydraulic and electrical resources. Also served in the government established in 1988, and since 1992 has been speaker of the Lebanese parliament.
al-Bitar, Salah al-Din (1912–1980). Syrian prime minister (intermittently 1963–1966). Helped create the Baath Party, which became Syria’s ruling party, and instrumental in the short-lived union between Syria and Egypt as the United Arab Republic. Led a pro-Nasserist coup in Syria on March 8, 1963, that resulted in his becoming premier. Held that post intermittently until 1966. Killed in Paris in 1980 by assassins allegedly under Syrian orders.
Chamoun, Camille (1900–1987). President of Lebanon (1952–1958). Headed the National Liberal Party (1958–1986). Requested the dispatch of the U.S. Marines to Lebanon in July 1958 to help restore order resulting from his politics and policies. Became defense and foreign minister in July 1958 in a “rescue cabinet” formed to end Muslim-Christian clashes over Lebanese support of the Palestinian movement. From 1984 until his death, served as finance minister.
Chehab, Fuad (1903–1973). President of Lebanon (1958–1964). Also served interior minister, and defense minister. As commander in chief of the Lebanese army, refused to take sides during the 1952 uprising against President Bishara al-Khoury. Succeeded Camille Chamoun as president following the 1957 crisis. As president, pursued a neutralist policy.
Dayan, Moshe (1915–1981). Israeli military commander and political leader. Member of Jewish police force (1936–1939). Israel Defense Forces chief of staff (1953–1958). Prepared plans for the invasion of the Sinai Peninsula during the 1956 Suez crisis. Elected to the Knesset in 1959 on the Labor ticket. Appointed defense minister in 1966 and became a hero of the June 1967 War. Quit the cabinet in 1974 after criticism of the army’s lack of preparedness during the 1973 Arab-Israeli war. In 1977 defected from the Labor Party to become foreign minister in Menachem Begin’s Likud government. Resigned as foreign minister in October 1979 in protest of Israel’s hard-line settlements policy.
Eban, Abba (1915–2002). Deputy prime minister of Israel (1963–1966); foreign minister (1966–1974). Instrumental in the evolution of the UN partition plan as a representative of the Jewish Agency to the United Nations. Served for a decade both as Israel's ambassador to the United Nations and as its ambassador to the United States in the 1940s and 1950s. Elected to the Knesset in 1954. Held the position of foreign minister during the June 1967 War. Critical of Israeli settlement policies, advocating that the occupied territories be returned in exchange for peace.
Eshkol, Levi (1895–1969). Prime minister of Israel (1963–1969). Served as finance minister when David Ben-Gurion resigned the premiership in 1963 and succeeded him as Israel's third prime minister. Established relations with West Germany in 1965. Held the premiership during the June 1967 War. Implemented the National Water Carrier system.
Fadlallah, Muhammad Hussein (born 1939). Spiritual leader of Hizballah. Rose to prominence as Hizballah's leader in the 1980s during the Lebanese civil war, preaching armed resistance to occupation.
Fahd ibn Abd al-Aziz Al Saud (1922–2005). King of Saudi Arabia (1982–2005). As crown prince after King Faisal’s death in 1975, was highly influential in shaping Saudi foreign policy. Wrote the first Middle East peace initiative sponsored by Saudi Arabia, in 1981. Succeeded Khalid as king in June 1982. Following the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1991, broke with traditional Saudi policy by allowing the deployment of foreign forces to the kingdom. After the war, established the consultative council in 1993 and implemented minor political reforms. Had a stroke in 1995 and relinquished day-to-day matters of the kingdom to Crown Prince Abdallah. Died on August 1, 2005.
Faisal I (Faisal ibn Hussein; 1885–1933). King of Iraq (1921–1933). Led an Arab revolt against the Ottomans with the assistance of T. E. Lawrence (Lawrence of Arabia) and the British during World War I. Promised an Arab state by the British in return for fighting the Ottomans, served briefly as king at Damascus in 1920, until expelled by the French, who held the League of Nations mandate for Syria. With British help, claimed a second throne in Baghdad in 1921.
Faisal II (1936–1958). King of Iraq (1939–1958). Inherited the throne at age three upon the accidental death of King Ghazi. Crowned May 2, 1953. During his five-year reign, Iraq pursued an anticommunist course, culminating in the 1955 Baghdad Pact in which Britain, Iran, Iraq, Pakistan, and Turkey pledged to thwart possible Soviet intrusion into the Middle East. Assassinated on July 14, 1958, in Baghdad along with most members of the royal family in a revolution that resulted in Iraq being declared a republic.
Faisal ibn Abd al-Aziz Al Saud (1906–1975). King of Saudi Arabia (1964–1975). Became crown prince when his brother, King Saud, ascended the throne in 1953. Served as prime minister, foreign minister, defense minister, and finance minister. Became king in March 1964, when Saud was legally deposed. Pressed for economic and educational advances. Fostered ties with the United States and supported conservative Arab regimes. During the 1973 Arab-Israeli war, enforced the Arab oil embargo against the United States, Western Europe, and Japan. Assassinated by a nephew on March 25, 1975, in Riyadh.
Farouk I (1920–1965). King of Egypt (1936–1952). Reign marked by his quarrel with the dominant Wafd Party and with the British over the Sudan. Damaged his public standing with the disastrous campaign against Israel in 1948 and charges of corruption connected with arms purchases. Forced to abdicate after the Free Officers’ coup in July 1952. Died in exile in Italy.
Franjiyyah, Sulayman (1910–1992). President of Lebanon (1970–1976). Supporter of Syria under whose presidency the Lebanese civil war erupted. Maintained the Marada Brigade, a private militia headed by his son Tony, who was killed by Maronite rivals. Proposed a redistribution of legislative power in 1975 based on the Lebanese confessional system, but ultimately failed to develop a formula acceptable to all Christian and Muslim parties. Remained popular in some circles at the conclusion of the civil war.
Fuad I (1868–1936). King of Egypt (1922–1936). Proclaimed king when Britain relinquished its protectorate over Egypt in 1922. Reign marked by a struggle between the Wafd Party and palace parties. In 1925 established Fuad I University, now Cairo University, the first Western-style Egyptian university.
Gemayel, Amin (born 1942). President of Lebanon (1982–1988). Son of Pierre Gemayel. Chosen as president in September 1982 to succeed his slain brother, Bashir. Had only nominal control of the country amid continued civil war. Antagonized various sects and factions with pro-U.S. and pro-Israeli policies. Ended his six-year term without the election of a successor. Appointed Michel Aoun as the head of an interim military government in the last minutes of his presidency. Retired from politics in 1988, moved to the United States and France. Upon returning to Lebanon in 2000, became involved in Christian groups opposed to President Emile Lahoud. In 2005 joined the chorus calling for the withdrawal of Syrian troops and intelligence agents from Lebanon.
Gemayel, Bashir (1947–1982). Leader of the Lebanese Forces. Son of Pierre Gemayel and brother of Amin Gemayel. Commander of the Lebanese Forces, the Phalangist militia. Elected president of Lebanon in August 1982 with Israeli support and pressure. Assassinated in a bombing in September 1982 in Beirut.
Gemayel, Pierre (1905–1984). Founder and leader of Lebanese Phalange (or Kataib) Party. Became a member of parliament in 1960 and held office in most Lebanese governments. Ran for the presidency in 1970 but withdrew in favor of neutral candidate Sulayman Franjiyyah. Father of Bashir and Amin Gemayel, both of whom were selected to assume the office of president of Lebanon.
Habash, George (born 1925). A founder of the Arab Nationalist Movement and founder of and leader of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP). Despite initially rejecting a diplomatic solution to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, agreed in August 1999 to unify the PFLP’s position with that of the PLO in future final-status negotiations with Israel. Stepped down as general secretary of the PFLP in 2000.
Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa(born 1950). King of Bahrain (1999– ). Ascended the throne upon the death of his father, Amir Isa bin Salman. Changed the name of the country to the Kingdom of Bahrain and his title to king in 2002. Trained at Sandhurst and Mons Officer Cadet School in Britain. Returned to Bahrain to organize the Bahrain Defense Force, which he commanded until becoming amir. As amir, moved quickly to defuse a long-running insurgency by granting more freedoms, freeing prisoners, and welcoming exiles back. Constitutional changes resulted in the creation of a new, half-elected parliament in 2002.
Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani (born 1952). Amir of Qatar (1995– ). Served as major general and commander-in-chief of the armed forces. Appointed heir apparent and minister of defense in May 1977. Chaired Higher Council for Planning and the Higher Council for Youth Welfare from 1979 to 1991. Deposed his father Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani in June 1995 in a bloodless coup.
al-Hariri, Rafiq (1945–2005). Prime minister of Lebanon (1992–1998; 2000–2004). Mediated efforts in the 1980s to bring peace to Lebanon and was instrumental in formulating and implementing the Taif Accords. Is credited with the rebuilding and revitalization of Beirut after the civil war. Resigned his second term as prime minister in 2004 to protest the Syrian-instigated extension of Emile Lahoud’s presidential term, which required a constitutional amendment. Had become estranged from Syria during his second stint as prime minister. Assassinated in February 2005 when explosives ripped through his motorcade in Beirut. His death, widely blamed on Syria, sparked massive demonstrations in Lebanon against Syrian interference, which prompted the resignation of Hariri’s successor as prime minister, the pro-Syrian Omar al-Karami, and the eventual withdrawal of Syrian forces from Lebanon.
Helou, Charles (1911–2001). President of Lebanon (1964–1970). Former banker, journalist, and diplomat who was a compromise choice for president in 1964. Steered a neutral course between the West and neighboring Arab countries. Served in numerous ministerial positions over the years. In 1969 signed the Cairo Agreement, which sanctioned an armed Palestinian presence in Lebanon, essentially undermining central government authority.
Herzog, Chaim (1918–1997). President of Israel (1983–1993). Served in the Haganah in the 1930s and fought in the first Arab-Israeli war. Became Israel’s first chief of military intelligence. Served as defense attaché in Washington in the 1950s and as the first military governor of the occupied West Bank. Held position of Israel’s ambassador to the United Nations from 1975 to 1978. Elected to the Knesset on Labor's ticket in 1981. After election as president in 1983, retired from political life in 1993 after two five-year terms.
al-Hoss, Selim (born 1929). Prime minister of Lebanon (1976–1980; 1987–1990; 1998– 2000). Served three times as Lebanese prime minister and also held the positions of foreign minister and acting president. Refused to step aside as prime minister after Michel Aoun was appointed acting prime minister of a provisional government in 1988 by outgoing president Amin Gemayel, who left office without a successor. Elected to parliament in 1992 and served as prime minister from 1998 until 2000.
Hrawi, Elias (born 1930). President of Lebanon (1989–1998). Elected president in 1989, after the assassination of the newly elected Ren<ac>e Muawwad. Presided over the government that amended the constitution to formalize the Taif Accords. Brought to an end Gen. Michel Aoun's stint as provisional prime minister, disarmed a number of militias, and extended the government’s territorial sovereignty. Had the constitution amended to extend his term in office by three years.
Hussein, Saddam (born 1937). President of Iraq (1979–2003). Former vice chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council who succeeded Ahmad Hassan al-Bakr, whom he was instrumental in removing from power. Helped bring about detente with Iran in 1975, but as president launched an invasion of it in September 1980 that developed into a costly eight-year war. Moved Iraq away from alliance with the Soviet Union and toward closer relations with Arab states during the war. Restored diplomatic relations with the United States in 1984. Ordered the use of chemical weapons against Iraq’s Kurdish population in northern Iraq and against Iranian troops in the late 1980s.
Launched an invasion of Kuwait in August 1990. Gained favor and support in some Arab countries by promoting the aggression as a holy war. Refused to withdraw from Kuwait until decisively defeated by a U.S.-led coalition in early 1991. Managed to remain in power after the Persian Gulf War, despite destruction of Iraq’s infrastructure, an international embargo, and Kurdish and Shiite rebellions. Lost central government control of much of northern Iraq, which became an autonomous Kurdish sector. Engaged in an extensive game of cat and mouse with UN weapons inspectors assigned to Iraq as part of the resolution of the Persian Gulf War. In December 1998 refused to cooperate with weapons inspectors and withstood month-long retaliatory air strikes by the United States and Britain.Allowed inspectors to return in late 2002, but was accused of continuing to hide weapons of mass destruction and related programs by the administration of George W. Bush. Rejected a March 2002 U.S. ultimatum that he step down, thus leading to on the invasion of Iraq by the United States, Britain, and a coalition of other countries. Overthrown following the invasion. Captured hiding in a hole in a farm in December 2003. Awaits prosecution on charges of having committed war crimes.
Hussein ibn Ali (Sharif Hussein; 1854–1931). Amir of Mecca (1908–1916); King of Hijaz (now part of Saudi Arabia, 1916–1924). Fomented the Arab Revolt in 1916 against the Ottomans during World War I in cooperation with the British, who promised to recognize Arab independence after the war. Opposed the regimes imposed on Iraq, Palestine, and Syria by the Great Powers through League of Nations mandates. Forced to abdicate as king of the Hijaz in 1924 following an attack by and lose to Abd al-Aziz Al Saud of the Najd. Exiled to Cyprus. Hussein’s son Ali was king of Hijaz for a brief period. Another son, Abdallah, became king of Jordan. A third son became King Faisal I of Iraq.
Hussein ibn Talal (1935–1999). King of Jordan (1953–1999). Crowned May 2, 1953, after his father, King Talal, was declared mentally ill. Abrogated Jordan’s mutual defense pact with Britain in 1956. Joined Arab nations in the June 1967 War against Israel. Crushed Palestinian guerrillas threatening Jordanian sovereignty in September 1970. At the 1974 Arab League summit in Rabat, lost the right to the Palestine Liberation Organization to negotiate on behalf of the Palestinians. Denounced the 1979 Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty and severed relations with Egypt. Restored diplomatic ties with Cairo in September 1984. Surrendered Jordan’s claim to the West Bank in favor of the PLO and announced the breaking of all legal and administrative ties to the Israeli-occupied territory in August 1988 during the intifada. Withstood sharp international criticism for his pro-Iraq stance during the 1990–91 Persian Gulf crisis and war. In July 1994 signed the Washington Declaration, ending Jordan’s forty-six-year state of war with Israel, with which he had over the years negotiated with in secret. Assisted President Bill Clinton in brokering the Wye River Memorandum between Israeli prime minister Benjamin Netanyahu and Palestinian president Yasir Arafat in October 1998. While fatally ill, removed his brother Hassan as crown prince and replaced him with his eldest son, Abdallah. Died on February 7, 1999.
Idris I (1890–1983). King of Libya (1951–1969). As amir of Cyrenaica, fought Italian occupation of Libya. Was declared constitutional monarch when Libya became an independent state in 1951. Deposed on September 1, 1969, in a coup led by Col. Mu’ammar al-Qadhafi. Lived in exile in Egypt until his death in May 1983.
Isa bin Al Khalifa (1933–1999). Amir of Bahrain (1960–1999). Declared Bahrain’s independence after Britain quit the Persian Gulf in 1971. Rejected a proposed federation of Bahrain with neighboring Qatar and United Arab Emirates. Established a parliament in 1973, but dissolved it two years later. Forced to deal with growing dissatisfaction among Bahrain's Shiite populations.
Isma’il, Abd al-Fattah (1939–1986). President of South Yemen (People's Democratic Republic of Yemen) (1978–1980). Served as secretary-general of the National Liberation Front (1971–1978). Following a coup against Salim Rubayyi’ Ali in 1978, became general secretary of the reorganized Yemen Socialist Party and was elected head of state. Resigned from both positions and moved to Moscow in 1980, presumably because of an internal power struggle. Returned to South Yemen in 1985 and was elected to the Politburo. His return precipitated a January 1986 coup and subsequent civil war in which he died.
al-Jaafari, Ibrahim (born 1947). Prime minister of the Iraqi transitional government (2005– ). Leader of the Shiite al-Dawa Party who lived in exile in Iran from 1980 to 1989 after Saddam Hussein launched a crackdown his party. Moved to London in 1989 and became involved in the broad movement to topple Hussein. Returned to Iraq in 2003 after Hussein’s overthrow. Appointed to the Iraqi Governing Council in 2003 and in mid-2004 to be one of two vice presidents in the interim Iraqi government. Selected by the Iraqi National Assembly in 2005 to be prime minister of the transitional government.
Jabir al-Ahmad Al Sabah (born 1926). Amir of Kuwait (1977– ). Appointed minister of finance and minister of industry in 1962. Served as deputy prime minister from 1963 to 1965, prime minister from 1965 to 1978, and heir apparent since 1966. Proclaimed amir of Kuwait in December 1977. As amir, suspended the National Assembly three times amid debates on foreign affairs and domestic politics. Fled to Saudi Arabia and established a government-in-exile after the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in August 1990. Returned to Kuwait after its liberation in February 1991. Persisted in advocating suffrage for women, finally prevailed in 2005.
Jumblatt, Kamal (1917–1977). Druze and opposition leader in Lebanon. Was first elected to parliament in 1943 to represent Mount Lebanon. Went on to be re-elected seven times. Appointed minister of economy, agriculture, and social affairs in 1946. Founded the Progressive Socialist Party in 1949. Served in several ministerial posts in the 1960s. Supporter of the Palestinian cause and reform of Lebanon’s sectarian division of public offices. Assassinated in March 1977, allegedly at Syria’s behest. Father of Walid Jumblatt.
Jumblatt, Walid (born 1949). Leader of the Progressive Socialist Party (1977– ). Succeeded his father, Kamal Jumblatt, as PSP leader in 1977. With Syrian backing, led a Druze militia in 1983 in successfully driving the Israeli-allied Lebanese Forces from the Shuf region during the civil war and then joined the cabinet of President Amin Gemayel. Served as minister of public works, transport, and tourism in the government of Selim al-Hoss created in 1988. Retired from public affairs in 1990 but returned to politics in 2000 and moved toward an anti-Syrian position forging closer ties with Christian political groups. After years as a supporter of Syrian, became a leading voice in demanding the withdrawal of Syrian forces after the assassination of former prime minister Rafiq al-Hariri in February 2005.
Karami, Omar (born 1935). Prime minister of Lebanon (1990–1992; 2004–2005). First served as prime minister from December 1990 until May 1992. Served as minister of education and culture during the Selim al-Hoss government of 1989–1990. Succeed Rafiq al-Hairi as prime minister in October 2004. Resigned in spring 2005 in the midst of growing anti-Syrian sentiment and demonstrations in the wake of Hariri’s assassination in February 2005. Brother of Rashid Karami, who was assassinated in 1987 after serving eight times as prime minister.
Karami, Rashid (1921–1987). Prime minister of Lebanon (1955–1956; 1958–1960; 1961–1964; 1965–1966; 1966–1968; 1969–1970; 1975–1976; 1984–1987). Served as prime minister under Camille Chamoun (1955–1956) but resigned after a dispute with Chamoun. Served as prime minister again under Presidents Fuad Chehab and Charles Helou (1958–1969) until resigning to protest the violent suppression of a pro-Palestinian demonstration. Reappointed prime minister by Sulayman Franjiyyah during the civil war (1975–1976). Held the office for the last time beginning in 1984 under Amin Gemayel, with whom he had a strained relationship. Made numerous unsuccessful attempts to promote national reconciliation. Held numerous other ministerial positions, including the foreign affairs portfolio. Assassinated in June 1987, allegedly by the Lebanese Forces.
Khalaf, Salah (Abu Iyad; 1933–1991). PLO security and intelligence chief of the Palestinian Liberation Organization. Allied closely with PLO chairman Yasir Arafat, with whom he helped establish Fatah. Played prominent roles in Palestinian affairs in Jordan and Lebanon. Called for coexistence with Israel in later years. Assassinated in 1991 in Tunis reportedly by associates of Abu Nidal.
Khalid ibn Abd al-Aziz Al Saud (1913–1982). King of Saudi Arabia (1975–1982). Became vice president of the Council of Ministers in 1962. Elevated to crown prince in 1965. Ascended the throne upon the assassination of King Faisal in March 1975. Died of a heart attack in June 1982.
Khalifa bin Hamad Al Thani (born ca. 1930). Amir of Qatar (1972–1995). Became the first Qatari minister of education in 1957. Declared Qatar an independent state in 1971 before deposing his cousin Amir Ahmad bin Ali Al Thani in a bloodless coup on February 22, 1972. Headed a program of social and economic improvements made possible by oil revenues. Joined in the Arab oil embargo against the West in 1973. Deposed in a bloodless coup by his son Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani in 1995. Lived in exile from 1995 until 2004, when he returned to Qatar.
Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahayan (born 1948). Amir of Abu Dhabi (2004– ); president of the United Arab Emirates (2004– ). Succeeded his father Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahayan upon his death in November 2004. Had served previously as deputy prime minister of the UAE and commander of the armed forces.
Khamenei, Ali (born 1939). Iranian supreme leader (1989– ). A disciple of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini in Qom, was imprisoned twice for opposition to the shah. Co-founded the Islamic Republic Party in 1978. Became one of the most active clerics in the Iranian Revolution. Elected as third president of the Islamic Republic in October 1981. Reelected to a second presidential term 1985. Appointed supreme spiritual leader of Iran upon Khomeini’s death in June 1989. Derives his rank as an ayatollah from his election to succeed Khomeini as supreme leader rather than from his Islamic credentials. Opposed attempts at reform by President Mohammad Khatami in the 1990s and 2000s.
Khatami, Mohammad (born 1943). President of Iran (1997–2005). Headed the Islamic Centre in Hamburg, Germany, from 1978 to 1979. Returned to Iran and was elected to the Majlis in 1980. Appointed minister of culture and Islamic guidance in 1982. Forced to resign his ministerial position due conservative leaders’ criticism of his liberal stance on art and culture, but remained cultural adviser to President Ali Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani. Won a landslide victory as a moderate, reformist candidate in 1997 presidential elections. Appointed a moderate cabinet that included a female minister. Sought normalization of relations with a number of Western governments. Re-elected in 2001 by an overwhelming majority, but ultimately stifled by the clerical establishment in his attempts at reform.
Khomeini, Ruhollah (1902–1989). Faqih (supreme leader) of Iran (1979–1989). Led political protests against the shah’s social reforms in1962–63. Exiled to Turkey in 1963 and then to Iraq a year later. Continued to agitate against the shah while in exile. Expelled from Iraq to France in 1978 for his political activities. Returned to Iran in February 1979 after the overthrow of the shah to help establish the Islamic Republic of Iran. Accepted a cease-fire of the eight-year Iran-Iraq War in July 1988, reversing a commitment to overthrow Iraqi president Saddam Hussein. Died in Tehran June 3, 1989.
al-Khoury, Bishara (1895–1964). President of Lebanon (1943–1952). Elected while the Free French controlled the country. Arrested temporarily, along with other government officials, by the French after the constitution was amended to unilaterally end the French mandate. Party to the 1943 National Pact establishing Lebanon’s confessional-based system of government. Oversaw Beirut’s transformation into a trade and financial center. Deposed in 1952 because of abuses of power.
al-Kuwatly, Shukri (1891–1967). President of Syria (1943–1949; 1955–1958). Emerged during the 1920s and 1930s as a nationalist leader opposed to the French mandate. Elected president in 1943 while the Free French controlled Syria. Secured the withdrawal of the French and attainment of Syrian independence in 1946. Overthrown in a 1949 coup. Returned from exile in 1954 and advocated an Arab union led by Egypt. Elected president again in 1955, serving until 1958, when the United Arab Republic of Egypt and Syria was formed.
Lahoud, Emile (born 1936). President of Lebanon (1998– ). Served as a naval commander in the 1970s and as commander in chief of the Lebanese Army from 1989 until 1998. Led the military offensive against Gen. Michel Aoun when he refused to step aside. Largely responsible for rebuilding the Lebanese Army, eliminating many confessional problems that existed within the military. Elected to replace Elias Hrawi as president in November 1998 after a constitutional change concerning the law governing the commander in chief of the military assuming the presidency. Extension of his six-year term by three years in 2004 required a constitutional amendment approved by the Lebanese parliament (under Syrian pressure) and generated much resentment within Lebanon, led to the resignation of Prime Minister Rafiq al-Hariri in protest, and set in motion the series of events leading to Hariri’s assassination and the withdrawal of Syrian troops from Lebanon.
al-Majali, Abd al-Hadi (born 1934). Jordanian ambassador to the United States (1981); director general of public security (1985–1989). Served also as chief of staff of the Jordanian armed forces in 1979 and minister of public works. First elected Speaker of the Chamber of Deputies in 1998 and went on to be re-elected to several consecutive terms. Founded the National Constitutional Party and serves as its secretary-general. Leads the Reconciliation bloc, an alliance of small pro-regime parties.
Meir, Golda (1898–1978). Prime minister of Israel (1969–1974). In Palestine during the British mandate, was active in the labor movement, World Zionist Organization, and Haganah. While prime minister, maintained an extremely hard-line toward the Arab states. Also served as ambassador to the Soviet Union, minister of labor, and minister of foreign affairs. Criticized for Israel’s lack of preparedness when the Arabs attacked in October 1973.
Montazeri, Hussein Ali (born 1922). Iranian religious leader and leading dissident cleric. Studied theology in Isfahan, then went to Qom where he met Ruhollah Khomeini. Entered politics in the early 1960s, protesting against the shah. After the Islamic Revolution, elected to the Council of Experts. Designated by Khomeini in November 1985 as his successor, but fell from favor and resigned under pressure in March 1989 after challenging the ruling clerics’ authoritarian practices. After protesting a regime crackdown, placed under house arrest from 1997 until 2004. Writings have became a rallying point for many of Iran’s modernist thinkers.
Mossadeq, Mohammad (1880–1967). Iranian prime minister (1951–1953). Largely responsible for nationalizing the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company in 1951. Resulting economic upheaval and struggle for power led to his being overthrown by Mohammad Reza Shah and pro-monarchist opponents in a British and U.S.-backed coup. Sentenced to a three-year prison term for treason and remained under house arrest until his death. In addition to being prime minister, served as a governor, minister of finance, and minister of foreign affairs.
Mousavi, Mir Hossein (born ca. 1941). Prime minister of Iran (1981–1989). Arrested in 1973 for opposing the monarchy. After the 1979 revolution, elected prime minister in November 1981 and reelected in 1985 and 1988. Lost post in July 1989 when the office of prime minister was abolished by a constitutional referendum. Also served as minister of foreign affairs. Sits on the Expediency Council.
al-Muashir, Marwan (born 1956). Deputy prime minister and minister of state for prime ministry affairs and government performance in Jordan (2004– ). Appointed Jordan’s first ambassador to Israel (1995–1997) as well as ambassador to the United States (1997) and minister of foreign affairs (2002–2004). Tasked by King Abdallah as deputy prime minister with reforming Jordan’s inefficient bureaucracy.
Mubarak, Hosni (born 1928). President of Egypt (1981– ). Appointed air force chief of staff in 1969 and became its commander in 1972. Credited with the air force’s success in the early days of the October 1973 War with Israel. Appointed vice president in 1975. Succeeded Anwar al-Sadat as president after his assassination in October 1981. Reelected to a fourth six-year term in 1999. Under pressure to open the political system, announced in early 2005 that upcoming presidential elections would be competitive (though potential challengers faced many hurdles). Continues to battle extremist Islamists once thought to have been subdued. Joined the multinational coalition in the 1991 Persian Gulf War, but was critical of the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Maintained a “cold peace” with Israel during downturns in relations, but has at other times has actively mediated between Israel and the Palestinians.
Naguib, Mohammad (1901–1984). President of Egypt (1953; 1954). Widely respected military figure brought on board as leader of the Free Officers to lend legitimacy to the overthrow of King Farouk in 1952. Became the first president of Egypt after it was declared a republic, but was soon ousted in a power struggle with Gamal Abdel Nasser in 1954.